Movies Influence on a Person’s Life

Movies Influence on a Person’s Life Movies have always been used to instruct and entertain people. Throughout history movies have thought people about war, love, life and death. They have made people happy and sad, angry and remorseful. There is no doubt that movies have had some very important effects on people’s behavior. The movies influences affect in young children as they pass through different levels of growing up, and on people who often watch movies and incorporate them in their own real life activities.The primary reason is that movies have cultural and moral influences on people. For instance, Youngsters love to watch the dancing princesses or the evil ninjas, because of a lack of judgment and knowledge. They will copycat the actions and behaviors in everything whether it is playing, clothes or habits. Children do not have the sense to differentiate fact from vision. They think, what they see is real and can happen to them in the future. Furthermore, horror m ovies created from imaginary stories that show the dark sides of life have the primary aim of scaring and shocking the audience.This can lead to the development of fears and insecurities in the mind of a child. Young children like to use phrases from the movies, and experience the same style of living. Children believe that all those ideas, characterized in movies, are good and correct. Movies include various kinds of contents. In some, for example, scenes involving murders are broadcast, in which a person is killing or being killed by someone. This event in fiction may cause a person to justify bloodshed or murder psychologically.In addition, movies also persuade people to think about themselves, people imagine being placed in a movie instead of the original character. This thought can change a person’s behavior in the real life. It is not strange when a writer gives a solution for a problem in the movie; but people may think that this is the only option for facing the same issue in real life, which is not true. Violence and the use of drugs in the movies often put people in an uncomfortable situation, because people might have had personal experience with drugs or other illegal substances.These types of movies have a very bad impact on people. Instead individuals should watch movies where a person can learn something and through that can bring positive behavior in life. Also movies, in which drinking alcohol is illustrated in a positive way, can play a significant role in a person’s decision to begin drinking at an early age. Research proves that drinking alcohol before the age of 16 is a risk factoring which can prevent development later in life.Movies are tools to help people who want to develop culturally, in broader word, Movies have the power to educate people. Like books movies can teach ethics, make a person grateful, and show the different sides of human nature, in addition, to entertaining and keeping a person happy. Instructive movies are more effective for young children, as once they see it, children will never forget it. What a person can do is to propose the movies which he thinks are able to show the accurate conception.Violence shown through movies affects society and may cause criminal activity. Certain movies should be denied the right to be released on the market. A person needs to know that in everything there has to be control and an equal balance. Teachers should also encourage children to take up reading as a hobby or to watch knowledge related movies. Children should be allowed to watch only movies from which they can learn. People shouldn’t watch movies which bring negative thoughts into their personal lives.

Problems of Working Students Essay

1.1BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY The financial burden of education fees are rising. Due to the increasing price of tuition fees, school fees and other education finances, families tend to face financial crisis particularly on managing the budget of the family basing on their family income. These include the budget for food, education, electricity bills, and other financial bills. The family is unable manage it all since their income is incapable of affording those bills especially the valuable price of education finances. Considering those facts, students affected by the crisis experienced by their family, students will be necessitated to work while studying; it’s either a part-time or a full-time working student. Student jobs have become sort of a trend among students around the world  primarily college students whereas college tuitions and finances are more high-priced and costly than high school learners. In short, the term that suits this trend is ‘Earn and Learn’ policy. Another factor is students who have no relatives or family who aspire to fulfil studies prefer to be a working student unless they’re students who comprise scholarship. Every student has their own aspirations in life, and that is the reason why some students are now working by virtue of aiming those aspirations. Students of Palawan State University also have their own aspirations. Now that the number of working students on Palawan State University is rising, working students will be queried regarding the questions that answer the problems that working students experience. A study done by Jonathan M. Orszag, Peter R. Orszag, and Diane M. Whitmore entitled â€Å"Learning and Earning: Working in College† states that since 1984, the fraction of college students aged 16 to 24 who also work full- or part-time has increased from 49 to 57 percent. Not only are students more likely to work today, but they are more likely to work full-time: the share of students working full-time while going to school full-time has nearly doubled, rising from 5.6 percent in 1985 to 10.4 percent in 2000. In 2000, 828,000 full-time students worked full-time, compared to 366,000 in 1985. The researchers stated the difference between a part-time and full-time working students, including the implications and factors that my affect their academical performance. They somehow concluded that being a full-time working student has more negative effects due to the lack of time. The researchers declared that the population of full-time college students has risen sharply over the past 15 years. The number of working students is increasing continuously and several problems experienced by those students have risen. As the main purpose of this study, this paper aims to determine the problems that exist on working students, the factors that affect their academical performance and the advantage and disadvantages of being a working student. 1.2STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS This study was conducted to determine the problems that working students of Palawan State University during the school year 2012-2013 are encountering. 1.)What are the profiles of the respondents? 2.)What are the reasons why students at Palawan State University are oblige to work while studying? 3.)What are the work-related problems of the respondents? 4.)What are the advantages and disadvantages of students engaging in work while in school? 5.)What are the aspirations in life of the respondents? 1.3SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This research can be a source of information about students who are working and studying simultaneously. This study is beneficial to students who will be engaging in work while studying, for them to be aware of the situations and problems they will be encountering. By knowing these factors students who prefer to work and study simultaneously will be responsive and ready for the situation he/she entering. Further significance is the non working students and faculty members will be able to understand the situation of the working students and help them to cope up with their studies. This study has significant implications to provide an idea to people on solving the problems encountered by working students. This study may be a source for further research regarding the problems of working students. 1.4 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study focused on the problems encountered by working students of Palawan State University. The study also encompasses the reason of students of Palawan State University to work and study simultaneously, the advantage and disadvantages of being a working student, and their aspirations in life to pursue working even if it causes problems to them. The main location of the study will be the Palawan State University and the most target respondents would be the working students specifically the college students, but possibly, the researcher will also request other students or also school administrator and faculty members to gather some information and will use other resources to be able for this research to become possible and effective. CHAPTER 2: THEORETRICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Foreign literatures Angela Walkup published an article entitled â€Å"The Down-and-Dirty-Life of Working Students†. Angela Walkup was a grand prix dressage driver. She explained how she learned the ropes as a working student. It is stated on her article that being a working student is hard but that is the real situation of a working student, it is a rough path. It is embodied there what a working student should be because a working student is constantly being watched and evaluated. If a working student is seen as a hard worker and a quick leaner then it will lead him/her to more responsible duties. She testified that experiences from being a working student are good and bad but it will be helpful for your future. Janet McGreevy (2002) published her own article about working students with a title of â€Å"Working Students Face Tough Challenges†. It is declared that the degree belief in the fundamental need for a college degree cuts across all sectors of American society. She proclaimed that college life is visualized as days of intense study coupled with â€Å"getting to know yourself† through campus involvement, the last hurrah of a carefree life prior too joining the real world of work after graduation. The affordability factor of today’s college education has eroded that image and many students find that they must make some tough financial choices by getting into school, and then to be able to stay in school through graduation. Working students encounter debt containment strategies by going to a less expensive college, taking fewer classes during the given semester, or opting to work instead of participating in civic activities or unpaid internships and research  opportunities. Tina Tuttle with Jeff McKinney and Melanie Rago published a literature with a title of â€Å"A Review of Research Related Literature on College Students and Work†. It was articulated that college students today face dilemmas about whether to attend college, where to attend, how to pay, how much to work, how many jobs to take, how to pay credit card bills, and car payments, how to juggle family and children, and how to balance these competing priorities while in school. It was elucidated that the amount of time students spend working has been of increasing concern for the educators that serve them and, in some instances, the students themselves. Recent data would indicate that 80% of American undergraduates worked while attending college in 1999-2000 (King, 2003).This represents an 8% increase over the class less than a decade previously, among whom 72% worked (Cuccaro-Alamin & Choy, 1998). Further, there appears to be a strong body of literature that points to the positive effects of not working versus working while attending college (King, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Local literatures Veronica V. Rillorta (2008) also published an article regarding working students entitled â€Å"Youngblood Working Student†. She is a high school honor student but was unable to go to college because of their poverty. She worked as waitress and saleslady but stopped due to some problems. It was stated that she was recommended by her high school batch mate as a working student ad she had her chance to continue college. It is hard for her but it is her opportunity to continue her faded dreams, she had manage to balanced work and study and now she is taking up computer secretarial course at the Vizcaya Institute of Computer Science in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. An article written by a Filipino anonymous blogger wrote an article entitled â€Å"A student’s sacrifice†. The used name of the blogger is Lostsoul. In her article, it was testified that being a working student requires sacrifice to achieve your aspirations. She said that you might even sacrifice your family, boyfriend/girlfriend, friends, and your social life. She stated that when you’re a working student, you always need to manage time and sometimes  you even forget to eat and take care of yourself because of your stresses and depressions as a student. You might also forget about your health but you need to give up something to be successful someday. An article reported by Bernadette Sembrano of ABS-CBN News, entitled â€Å"Only half of working students finish college.† (2010). It was affirmed that about 216,000 students in the country are currently juggling school and work, according to latest data from the Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The figure is about 8% of the total number of college students in the country. CHED said working students today are mostly into food service, entertainment and sales, apart from their usual stints as library and research assistants. Lawyer Julito Vitriolo, officer-in-charge at CHED’s office of the executive director stated that â€Å"They need extra income because of the financial crisis.† Vitriolo added that the students are forced to work because of higher commodity prices and tuition fees. The CHED said that only 50% of the working students get to finish college, because not that many can cope up with the hard situation of being a working student, getting stuck up between work and studies. 2.2REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES Foreign Studies A new study conducted by the researchers of the University of Washington, the Temple University and the University of Virginia,states that high school students who work for more than 20 hours in a week can face behavioural and academic problems. Samples of about 1,800 10th and 11th graders were compared for the study. Analysis was made by comparing the students who got the jobs to those who did not get the job and students who left their jobs to teens who continued working. Advanced statistical methods were used to match the teens on the basis of their personality and background. The researchers noticed that teens who worked for more than 20 hours in a week showed a decline in school engagement and increase in the behavioural problems. They even resorted to substance abuse, stealing, possessing guns etc. Things did not change for the better even when these teen cut back on their working hours or left the job all together. On the contrary, students  working for less than 20 hours a week did not face such psychological, academic or behavioural problems. Kathryn C. Monahan, research scientist at the University of Washington and the lead researcher of this study, suggests that parents, policymakers and educators should monitor the number of working hours of the students. The study is published in the journal, Child Development. Jonathan M. Orszag, Peter R. Orszag, and Diane M. Whitmore (August 2001) entitled â€Å"Learning and Earning: Working in College†. They revealed how many students are working and how their population increased yearly. Their study encompasses the different effects between full-time and part-time working students; they also focused on the effects of being a working student on the skills and performance of the student. The researchers aim to conduct their research for it to lead further studies regarding other ways of financing college students without affecting their acedemical performances. A study conducted by Veronica Gonzales, entitled â€Å"The experience of working class students at a Research I University†. She separated two distinctive class categories, the middle class, and the working class. She studied the difference of each other in areas including financing college, as well as other differences based on student’s high school experiences, including reading and writing skills, student-faculty-interaction, and time management. Local Studies These studies are related to this because it will lead to further results and conclusions regarding the problems encountered by working students. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY The present chapter is used to illustrate how the researchers identified the problems of working students in Palawan State University during the school year 2012-2013, with the purpose of letting the readers know the methodology utilized in the elaboration of the studies. 3.1PARTICIPANTS The participants for this study were 30 working students enrolled in Palawan State University (PSU). The 30 participants in this study were from three different departments of PSU, 10 participants were from the College of Mechanical Engineering, 10 participants from the College of Petroleum Engineering, and 10 participants from the College of Business and Accountancy. 3.2 MATERIALS The researchers executed a questionnaire to be distributed to the participants. The questionnaires contained questions regarding the information and data about the participants; state of the participant as a working student; the difficulties and problems the participants are facing as a working student and questions that answer the statement of the problem of this study. The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part included questions about the demographic profile of the respondents, the second part contained questions on which the information and data about the respondents as a working student will be gathered and the third part consisted questions which will be answered by number with different level of extent like 1- I certainly agree, 2- I agree, 3- Not sure, 4- I disagree, and 5- I certainly disagree. REFERENCES http://www.equisearch.com/horses_riding_training/english/working_students_120909/ http://www.slideshare.net/mcgreevy/working-students-face-tough-challenges http://ygoy.com/2011/02/05/students-working-more-than-20-hours-face-academic-and-behavioral-problems/ http://www.brockport.edu/career01/upromise.htm http://opinion.inquirer.net/inquireropinion/columns/view/20080401-127563/Working-student http://www.stonybrook.edu/workingclass/publications/VGonzalez09.pdf http://definitelyfilipino.com/blog/2011/11/09/working-student-a-students-sacr

Historical aspects in the films The Downfall Movie; Days of Glory Essay

Historical aspects in the films The Downfall Movie; Days of Glory - Essay Example The researcher of this paper tells that as he watched the movie ‘The Downfall’, the idea hit him that throughout the period, Hitler was playing against his own people and officers. Admittedly, he wanted to do with his officers what Stalin did with higher order officers. Also, Hitler wanted to do away with the old and the unwanted. This went along with his plan of reconstructing Berlin. The evident dislike of Hitler for the civilians is visible throughout the movie. For example, he tells Speer in a scene â€Å"You know Speer, there is an advantage to those bombings.† This is so because in his words, â€Å"It is easier to clean up debris than to demolish everything ourselves†. Here, one can see a Hitler who claims that as the war is over, the reconstruction will be quick. As one moves ahead, one comes by more such instances. To illustrate, when Mohnke says that three million civilians have to be evacuated if there is no intention to make a deal with Americans , the response of Hitler is that they have to be cold as ice. That means, he is not intended to waste a moment in protecting the civilians. In his own words, â€Å"we can spend no energy on the so-called civilians†. When one remembers the scenes where 12-13 year olds fall prey to the Soviet fire as they promised to their Fuhrer, and the fact that Hitler is in no way intended to protect them, one realizes the fact that the only intention is a wipe out. To illustrate further, when Mohnke asks as to what will happen to women, children and the elderly if they are not evacuated, the response of Hitler is that there is no civilians in such a war. In addition, he states it clearly that if the war is lost, there is no matter in losing the people too. In other words, it becomes more than evident that Hitler is such a man who is sympathetic only towards two things; his dog and his lady secretaries. The rest all are just means to his end. However, when I watched the movie further, I was astonished to see that more provocative statements were in the pipeline. An example is his Operation Clausewitz which results in the evacuation of all offices from Berlin. Thus, Hitler uses Berlin as a front line city, and is not ready to take the civilians to safer places. He says â€Å"We would destroy them ourselves†, because according to him, â€Å"our people have become weak, and they have to die out.† When one sees the police officers killing old civilians alleging that they are traitors as they tried to escape from the front line, the fact becomes crystal clear; Hitler wanted to get rid of the old and the unwanted ones. In addition is the scene of old people abandoned in hospital along with hundreds of corpses. Moreover, the officers who betrayed him from the very beginning, according to Hitler, will pay for the treachery with their blood. That means, Hitler is very aware about the possible outcome and he wants to reconstruct. In total, it becomes evident that Hitler, at least in the movie, is not a leader of the people, but a man who does not possess even the slightest degree of care for his people. Instead, he is dreaming about a reconstruction of Berlin for which he wants to get rid of the old and the unworthy. For the purpose, he uses Berlin as a front line and makes people pay for their unworthiness. II. Days of Glory The film Days of Glory seems to be another film that depicts how the French treated the Africans during the period of colonization. The film concentrates on the way the soldiers from North Africa recruited into the French First Army are treated by their white counterparts. It seems to me that the westerners used the blacks as mere artifacts that can be used to meet their ends. To begin with, one can see that in the movie, many Berber men join the forces not for the love of France but to fulfill personal needs. To illustrate, Said is a goat herder who is forced to join the force for poverty, and Yassir is in need of boot y as it is necessary for his brother to marry. Similarly, Messaoud is

Alcohol Education Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Alcohol Education - Research Proposal Example It will detail how the goal can be measured, the role nurses could play and the aspects that support increasing the educational awareness. Using evidence based research, it will also indicate whether the aspects have been researched before and the outcomes obtained. The paper will also discuss the stakeholders engaged so as to get support for the project, highlight the specific arguments that could be used and the strategies that could be employed. The paper will further make references to change theory, systems theory and organizational theory while outlining the steps to operationalize the project. The outline will indicate specific timelines, needed resources, communication plan and the estimated budget. It will then describe the outcomes that require measurement along the way and those at the end of the project, highlighting their significance and how they would be used to adapt new strategies along the way. Finally, it will be concluded by a description of what the expected outc omes would be. To effectively increase educational awareness of the effects of alcohol among the college age population, there is a need to equip those who will play the role of creating the awareness (WHO, 2012). They include parents, youth workers, teachers, community and religious workers. Through program initiatives, adults can be guided on youth behavioral training, family skills, brief therapy and support. Another critical group is made up of those who sell and serve alcohol, which can be trained on implementing measures to reduce harmful consumption of alcohol by the young people. Peers also bear a significant influence on the young people’s drinking habits and patterns, and specific approaches can be designed to mould their relationship to discourage alcohol consumption (Houghton & Roche, 2001). The way the youth make decisions regarding consumption of alcohol is also greatly influenced by the drinking culture that prevails in their community. The community can be use d to develop the youth’s social and personal skills in a manner which lets them take responsible choices while teaching them not to position themselves or others in the way of harm. Within the colleges, the administrators must educate students on personal and academic effects of excessive alcohol consumption. They should empower their students to be responsible of the decisions they make regarding alcohol and the campus environment. It is upon the college administration to impact upon the students, especially the new ones, the concept of an alcohol-free environment (Midford & McBride, 2001). This can be achieved by showing them that most of their peers already in college do not indulge in alcohol abuse but instead chose safe and healthy decisions. This is a particularly significant step because majority of new students have the tendency to simply fit in the norms they found existing in their new environment. If they are led to incorrectly believe that all students on campus g et drunk regularly, they will most likely pick on the habit and develop it. The students can be assisted to organize and participate in events designed by peer education groups to enhance respect for college policies, state laws and personal responsibility in terms of alcohol consumption. Such events present the youth with opportunities to display healthy ways of life free from use of alcohol illegally and its abuse. If such events are regular

Robin Hood Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Robin Hood - Case Study Example iff as well as the paranoiac nature of Prince John which can harm the campaign if he acts in an irrational manner and the Barons may end up undermining the efforts that Robin has already made. Ans2. The best option may seem to be to take the life of the Sherrif, but this option has more downsides as compared to any other option. The best option available to Robin is to join hands with the Barons. This will help in solving several issues that are being faced by the campaign. This would result in increase in the size of the fighters; the Barons would bring in capital which will satisfy the need for more resources. King Richard would be freed as the financial resources collected by the Barons will be used to pay the ransom amount and by this strategy, the sheriff will be eradicated as the sheriff will lose power and King Richard will be able to satisfy the needs of the peasants. Ans3. In order to implement the strategy of joining hands with Barons, first Robin Hood needs to contact the Barons and inform them about his strategy. Next he needs to inform his own band members regarding the merger and inform them about the benefits to the band of this endeavor (Hitt 92). Joining hands with Baron would result in increase in the band members, so Robin Hood will need to assign different roles to different band members and more managers need to be instated to manage the band in an effective manner. Next, Robin Hood will need to train the band members in conducting agriculture work which will help the band in raising financial resources to support the group. Lastly execute the plan of collecting the ransom and freeing the

The Concept of a Trial by a Jury Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Concept of a Trial by a Jury - Essay Example In the early case of William Penn and William Mead in 1670, this concept was challenged. William Penn and William Mead had been arrested, charged and tried at the Old Bailey for â€Å"tumultuous assembly† on a Sunday afternoon in London. (Randle, 2001) The jury had refused to convict and the judge in response had ordered the jury sequestered without food or drink or â€Å"so much as a chamber pot, though desired.† (Randle, 2001) Despite this kind of pressure the jurors continued to hold out with the result that they were fined and imprisoned. (Randle, 2001) A juror applied for a writ of habeas corpus and a judge of the King’s Bench ruled that no jury could be penalized for its verdict. (Knight, 1881, 211) Penn and Mead’s trial reflected some of the limitations and constraints on the fundamental concept of a fair and impartial jury as envisaged by the Magna Carta’s mandate for a trial by a jury of one’s peers. If a judge could put pressure on a jury or sanction the jury if it did not decide a case one way, there was no barrier between the government and the ordinary citizen. It is a fundamental concept of jury trials that the individual on trial is judged by the ordinary citizen. It was during the time of Penn’s trial that the American jury system began to establish itself as a protective barrier between the government and the accused man. (American Bar Association) This was particularly popular at a time when Americans regarded British laws as too harsh. In the final analysis, the perpetuation of such a jury is inconsistent with an element of fairness to both the accused and the victim which is an extension of the community at large. Modern jury selection techniques in America today ensure that both sides are well represented by the jury panel. The underlying goal is the selection of a panel that is impartial to both sides. For instance,   the common practice today is for the selection of jurors based on an assessment of their ability to determine the facts and issues objectively,   as opposed to partially or in favour of one side over another.  Ã‚  

Aston Martin Crash Structure Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Aston Martin Crash Structure - Coursework Example Furthermore, it is required to be as light as possible in order to optimize the fuel economy and increase the car performance. An Aston Martin crash beam has had various designs over the years, and each of the designs has its drawbacks and benefits (Zhao, 2013). The adventure with the composite materials started in 1953 and has advanced. The composites have demonstrated reliability, fatigue resistance, lightweight, and easy moulding to any shape; the composites are attractive alternatives to metals. Despite their merits, there are minimal transfers from metals to the composites in the automotive industry (Startsev, Ponomareva and Anikhovskaya, 2013). For proper utilisation of the composites in crash beam manufacture, issue of: design, structural simulation, light-weighting, modelling, the crashworthiness, joining, manufacturing, repair, recycling and the new material concepts. Priorities in the manufacture of the crash beam include: The identification and addressing of the material r esearch, for composites, needs of the crash structure is required, and can be achieved via the new and improved concepts or technologies for the composite material for crash beam applications that lead to an increased utilisation of the composites and improved crash beam solutions (Startsev, Ponomareva and Anikhovskaya, 2013). The composite processing durations are lengthy, their raw materials, for example resins and fibres are relatively expensive, in addition, it not easy to achieve high quality object surface finishes.

San Diego 2020 General Plan for San Diego, California Term Paper - 1

San Diego 2020 General Plan for San Diego, California - Term Paper Example Essentially, urban planning enables leaders to implement the collective vision of a city by utilizing the scarce resources available to the city, to foster economic and social development through collaborative engagements with interested stakeholders. In addition, through conscious planning, risks can be mitigated earlier to ensure connectivity between short-term activities and the long-term vision of the city. A good example of a general plan that is a roadmap for future long-term success is the San Diego 2020 Plan. The San Diego General Plan, also termed as the 2020 General Plan of San Diego, has been subject to a number of modifications over the years. A number of changes have been made over the years and continue to be made in order to match the evolving needs of the occupants of the City of San Diego and its environment. Great focus has been placed on the sustainability measures so that the policies adopted by the local governments can be aligned with the universal climate variations. The aim of the general/master plan is to highlight the city’s diverse and unique landscape which comprises river valleys, hills, mountains, dessert, estuaries, beaches, mesas, and canyons. It has been stated that the city’s unique landscape coupled with its transportation network, are the main factors that define San Diego as a city and the communities that live in the city. The landscape, the transportation networks, and the communities in the city form the framework that links the entire city together. The biggest challenge in developing an extensive functional framework has and continues to be the landscape of the city. Therefore, the San Diego General Plan aims to establish policies that enforce the utilization of the land, provide and maintain city services.  Ã‚  

THE CASE OF THE BRITISH PRESS ON MALE YOUTH SUICIDE Term Paper

THE CASE OF THE BRITISH PRESS ON MALE YOUTH SUICIDE - Term Paper Example This memoire describes how the issue of male youth suicide can be studied using Beeghley’s (1999) methodology. A large part of the memoire has gone into introducing the concept of suicide and the varying definitions of suicide, followed by setting the context for further discussion of the subject. An analysis of press articles is done to study how the press problematised the issue. Male youth suicide rates more than doubled between 1970-1998, and became a major concern for the society. In such a situation, the media’s role in acting as the moral entrepreneur, as per Cohen’s theory of moral panic, is worth noting. The main aim of the memoire is to investigate how the private issue of suicide was made a social problem by the press. Beeghley’s methodology was used for this purpose because unlike the methodologies by Rubington and Weinberg (2002), Best (2007) and Mooney (2011), his methodology assumes a more empirical approach through hypothesis testing. The memoire begins with the varying definitions of a social problem and the methodologies that are used to studying social problems. It goes on to state the justification for using Beeghley’s methodology in detail. This section is followed by a detailed description of Beeghley’s methodology and how it can be applied to studying social problems. The three aspects of the methodology include studying the â€Å"extent of harm† of a social problem, â€Å"identification and political recognition† of a social problem, and â€Å"need for improvement† of a social condition. These three components correspond to the correspond to the objective, subjective and optimistic components of social problems.

What is Art (ar arts) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

What is Art (ar arts) - Essay Example The paper also discusses intended purposes of these forms of art and the current trend. Literature is termed as an art in that it is a way by which individuals are able to express their ideas and feeling regarding various, there are many forms of written art which include novels, academic book, journals and magazines. These forms of art service various purposes and that they are aimed at informing, persuading and entertaining, for example newspapers and other forms of written art are used to inform the general public, and novels on the other hand are for entertainment purposes. These is another form of art that is used for the purpose of communication, it is also used for entertainment purposes. Today the film and video industry has been commercialized and large firms have invested in this firm of art industry example Hollywood, therefore this form of art provides employment opportunities. Music is also another form of art that involve the presentation of audio form of art, it is one of the oldest form of art which can be traced back to ancient times, the music industry provide employment opportunities and its main purpose is to entertain, persuade and inform individuals in the society, music has been used to express certain feeling and also to persuade. Paintings: Paintings, drawing s and pictures are forms of art that involve the use of signs in communication, this is one of the oldest form of art given that in the past when man lived in caves he painted cave walls. Its original purpose was a form of expression but this has changed with time whereby today art is a form of communication. b. Purpose: The intended purpose of art varies from the original creator of art, some form of art are created in order to entertain, commercial purposes, inform and as a form of expression. The following is a discussion of some of the purposes of art: Commercial: Most forms of art today are created for commercial purposes, this means that there are many individuals in the world today who depend on art as a source of income, for example all literature work is sold in the market at a price, all music, films and videos are sold in the market . Forms of art are also used by production firms to advertise their products, advertisements are accompanied by music and performances which help in the sale of products and this can therefore be termed as another commercial purpose of art, art is therefore an important economic activity in the world today. Entertain: Some forms of art are for entertainment purposes, although they are sold in the market example films and music their main purpose is to entertainment and in order for individuals to be entertained they pay for these forms of art. A good example is music and films whose main purpose is to entertain the audience. Communicate: The above mentioned forms of art are forms of communication, however art only provides a one way communication channel whereby the audience is not in a position to respond to expressions of art. Some of the common forms of art that serve the communication purpose include newspapers and videos and films. Expression: Forms of art are used to express certain feeling, these is most common with paintings and visual form of art, these forms of art can express happiness, violence, loneliness, joy and anger. For example an artist can create a form of art that shows individuals fighting and therefore this

Violeta Ramirez Essay Example for Free

Violeta Ramirez Essay â€Å"To many Americans, Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez seems a Latin wild man. But to the millions of Venezuelans who adore him, he is the first leader who genuinely cares for the nations poor majority, a welcome departure from politicians who traditionally catered to the elite. I think God sent him. I think hes the reincarnation of Simon Bolivar. Hes with the poor, says Omaira Perez, 60, referring to the 19th century general who liberated Venezuela from Spanish rule. † (Lynch, 2007) Hugo Rafael Chavez was born in Venezuela’s western grassland region on July 28, 1954. Socialism, Latin American integration and anti imperialism are promoted by the president because he was also leading the Bolivarian Revolution. Neo-liberal globalization and U. S. foreign policy were the main critics of the president. His parents were schoolteacher which is not a lucrative profession by any mean in Venezuela. He was belong to a poor family besides this in Venezuela dark skinned dark skin people faces strong racial divisions and white skinned people are elite. When he was seventeen years old he enrolled at Venezuela â€Å"Academy of Military Sciences† and studied engineering. After completion of acidic career he joined military for several months. Chavez was immediately popular with his fellow students, he and his fellow students developed a left nationalist doctrine that they termed Bolivarianism inspired by his real hero Simon Bolivar, the father of Venezuelan independence and a figure of legendary dimensions. (Resources on Iran, n. d. ) He was also the part of the lectureship and was famous for his fiercy lecturing style and radical critique of Venezuelan government and society. With his natural charisma, he brings closer soldiers to his ideas, and built a network of supporters within the army. In 1983 he established MBR 200, the revolutionary Bolivarian movement (Movimiento Bolivariano Revolucionario 200), 1983 being the 200th anniversary of Simon Bolivars birth. (ISIS Report, n. d. ) â€Å"With oil profits booming and his popularity high, Chavez seems to be in step with many Venezuelans even as spooked investors rushed to sell off Venezuelan stocks in companies subject to his nationalization plans. Chavez called that a knee-jerk overreaction, and shares in Venezuelas leading telephone company rebounded as the congressional finance chief assured reporters Wednesday that the government will negotiate compensation to the affected companies. He also visited the tomb of Simon Bolivar, the South American independence hero and inspiration for his Bolivarian Revolution, and blew kisses to supporters tossing rose petals at his open car. Before flying to Nicaragua, the former paratroop commander also watched a military parade with Russian-made Sukhoi fighter jets thundering overhead. † (James, 2007) Simon Bolivar: Influent Al Person in Hugo Chavezs Life Major influence on Chavez came from Simon Bolivar, from where Bolivarian movement was developed. The memory of Simon Bolivar has yet kept alive in Venezuela, the revolution of 19th century which led the sub continent independence battle against Spain. Simon Bolivar was born in Spain and many of his followers were native of Venezuela. Nonetheless, Simon Bolivar remained to be a significant and founding myth for the Venezuela institute. Particularly, his arm forces helped him a lot to bind them together even though of political instability. Chavez when he was a school child during the periods of 1950’s and 1960’s in the school studied a lot Bolivar’s feats against the Spaniards. The defining event in his life came when in 1989 the economy was devastated by rising oil prices which led President Carlos Andres Perez to a serious of tough measures. As a result of rising oil prices, buses fares were increased which led to protests by poor people and the army was sent to suppress the protestors. Chavez belong that part of the group that was deployed and he was enraged when he listen the order shoot all the citizens who he believes had a legitimate grievances. This was the motivation which led to his army coup that he organized against the same president some three years later. (Amirpur, 2006) â€Å"Invoking Christ and Castro as his socialist models, President Hugo Chavez began his third term †¦ by declaring that socialism, not capitalism, is the only way forward for Venezuela and the world. † (James, 2007) MBR 200. Revolutionary Bolivarian Movement-200 The MBR 200 was the social and political movement that Hugo Chavez founded in 1983. Chavez established MBR 200 setting as its political goals the realization of Bolivars ideals by means of a Bolivar resolution, which refers to a mass social and political movement in Venezuela aimed at eradication of corruption and emphasized on redistributive social justice and economic and political sovereignty. Some important points of Chavezs Bolivarianism are: †¢ Political participation of the masses by votes, referendum and councils †¢ Political and economic sovereignty †¢ Economic self – sufficiency †¢ Building in people nationality and patriotism †¢ Eradication of corruption †¢ Equal distribution of oil revenues of his land (Cordesman, 2005) 1992 Coup Chavez was working as a lieutenant colonel during his late 30s. In addition, he was also working as a committed left wing activist, mixing with left wing group outside the army and conspiring in the institution for the sake of coup d’etat. So, after an extended period of dissatisfaction and economic decline under the administration of President Perez, Chavez and his fellow conspirators launched a military coup in Feb 1992. Although the coup was not entirely successful Chavez came to national prominence due to a abruptly speech made shortly after his arrest, the Venezuelan government allowed him forty five second speech in order to tell his co-conspirators to lay down the arm. It was a mistake made on the government part and Chavez made the most of it. (Evans and Corsi, 2006) Chavez in Power When Chavez spent his 2 year life in Jail during the period of 1990s economy of Venezuela was went on to bear the huge burden of oil prices. Support for the two of main political parties decline in elections of 1994, Chavez found the population increasingly receptive to its critique of the two party models and its associated corruption. Chavez organized a new party called the â€Å"fifth republic movement† During 1996 97 his support gradually increased in polls and he scored a comfortable majority and took power in 1998, his first political office with 56 percent of votes. Resentment against the United States â€Å"One of the reasons that Chavez is so rhetorically antagonistic to the United States is that it plays very well in terms of his domestic support base at home. † (Lapper and Sweig, 2006) According to Richard lapper, the Latin American editor of Financial Times, Hugo Chavez â€Å"likes to present himself at the head of a kind of anti-Bush crusade. He likes to see himself as a crusader in that particular battle and likes to position himself at the head of that. † (Lapper and Sweig, 2006) â€Å"To be sure, President Chavez has legitimate reasons to lambaste the United States, which has tried to undermine him several times since he was first democratically elected in 1998. In October 2001, Washington requested that Mr. Chavez publicly retract criticism that he had made, in Venezuela, of the U. S. war in Afghanistan, well within his right as a sovereign leader. Carlos Romero, a political scientist at Central University in Venezuela and an expert in U. S. -Venezuelan relations, describes such U. S. hubris as a provocation, and a turning point in the deterioration of U. S. -Venezuelan relations. (Sreeharsha, 2006) Then the United States, despite its support of the Democratic Charter adopted at the 2001 Summit of Americas in Quebec, was quick to recognize the leaders of a coup in 2002 that quickly failed. The United States has provided opposition groups with millions of dollars of support in the name of democracy. Lately, the Bush administration has been keeping a low profile, Romero says, perhaps a disappointment to President Chavez. † (Sreeharsha, 2006) From Democracy towards a Totalitarian State â€Å"Violence has marked each step along Chavezs road to power. The former paratrooper first tried to seize control by a coup in 1992; he failed and instead spent two years in jail. He later tried democracy and was elected as an outsider by Venezuelans six years later. Chavezs opponents admit he is popular, especially among the poor. But being popular, they say, does not give the president the right to do whatever he wants. The police, military and armed thugs have been tools used freely by Chavez to hang on to power during a coup attempt and a national strike in 2002. (The Iron Fist of Hugo Chavez, 2005) There has been a continuous debate whether Chavez has released from corruption accusation or he himself damaged the country’s own foundation of democracy. Some believe that the Hugo Chavez have more power than any president should have. Chavezs new constitution has been seen as authoritarian. Although there are detailed sections involving human rights, but some believe that the power given to the highest branch of government can easily lead to human rights violations. The new constitution also allows the president to be in the office considerably, which some suggests leads to authoritarianism. Scholars also criticized the way Chavez gained power and his conduct afterwards. The motivation behind his recent constituent assembly has been seen as to settle the score with Venezuelans traditional opposition parties and remove them from all positions of influence. One scholar suggested that Chavez himself overthrown the government in 1992 as similar to the corruption of the traditional parties of Venezuela, which clutched power by the military inventions in 1945 and misbalanced Venezuela’s supreme court and congress. Now, buoyed by electoral victories and high oil prices, Chavez appears to be doing everything he can to snuff out democracy before the eyes of a nation and a world that does not seem to be paying much attention. Chavez has packed the Supreme Court and the army with his supporters, seized control of the countrys wealth and introduced a penal code that criminalizes dissent. Anyone who opposes him faces violence or prison. † (The Iron Fist of Hugo Chavez, 2005) â€Å"The Venezuelan leaders insistence on uniting numerous leftist parties into a single socialist bloc and eliminating the constitutions presidential term limits has opened the first fissures in his coalition. Annual inflation of more than 20% Latin Americas highest is undermining the economic gains of recent years and igniting doubts about Chavezs free spending. Recent nationalizations of two companies owned by U. S. firms further sours the business climate. † (Lynch, 2007) On the other way, some believe that the Chavez protected the democracy. In their point of views, since Chavez does not belong to any party, and he came from the grass roots and has seen all the hardships, therefore he is more capable to meet the interest of the Venezuelans. Some opponent of Chavez equates him with Fujiori but his comparison is not correct because unlike Fujimori Chavez has a self-governing foreign military, a revolutionary disclosure and he did not endorse huge privatization. Economic Policies â€Å"The changes are in keeping with pledges he made after his re-election last month to take a more radical turn toward socialism. His critics have voiced concern that he would use his sweeping victory to tighten his grip on power, following in the footsteps of Fidel Castro. Cuba, one of Chavezs closest allies in the region, nationalized major industries shortly after Castro came to power in 1959. Bolivias Evo Morales, another Chavez ally, moved to nationalize key sectors after taking office last year. † (Rueda, 2007) Venezuela is the 5th largest oil producer, which remains the key of Venezuelan economy. Chavez has gained a reputation as a price hawk in OPEC. At a meeting of OPEC in July 2006, Venezuela was the only country calling for lowered production to drive oil prices higher. Some critics say that under the President Chavez regime the output of Petroleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) which is a state owned company, has been reduced by 25% and Venezuela cannot meets it current quota. However Forbes argues that the political and other influence have an effect on numbers. Nonetheless, Chavez has attempted to broaden Venezuelas customer base by getting into joint ventures with other developing countries including China, Brazil, Argentina and India. Although the record oil prices have meant more funding for the social and development plans, but it has also left the economy dependent on oil sector, private sector role has diminished. â€Å"As Venezuela embarked on another six years under Hugo Chavez, the president announced plans to nationalize power and telecom companies and make other bold changes that will concentrate more power in his hands. † (Rueda, 2007)

Cmn 277 Essay Example for Free

Cmn 277 Essay Frequency of cause: how many times you have been exposed into message a. Cumulative (more than one time) multiple b. Non-cumulative (base on taking one) 6. Nature of outcome a. Cognitive (do with fighting against what we believe) b. Affective (do with emotion or feeling) c. Behavioral (perform) EX. The table is soft, but I think it is hard (cognitive); â€Å"I don’t like tables any more† (affective); I will not buy it. (Behavioral) 3) Phases of effects research: research topics, theories, and typical research in the direct effects era, limited effects era, and conditional effects era 1. Direct effects era Research topics and theories a. Looking at political propaganda b. Media perceived to be influential c. EX. â€Å"Hypodermic needle† and â€Å"magic bullet† theories (media are powerful) Research: research focus on content of media; little research on media effects 2. Limited effects era Research topics and theories a. Why are media not powerful? b. Ex. Selective exposure and selective retention theories Typical research: survey and content analysis 3. Conditional effects era Research topics and theories a. Looking for more subtle effects b. Looking for conditions when effects may occur Typical research: broadened range of methods B) Research Methods Overview 1) Basic problems in media effects research 1. Problems of exposure: when someone consume the message, different level of exposure. 2. Problems of measurement 3. Problems of causality (you like to try everything) 2) Causal models: basic one-way model, supplemental models, and alternative causal models 1. Basic one-way model X- cause, independent (nature) Y- effect, dependent (depend on X) X Y 2. Supplement causal models The basic is right, but maybe two or more ways . Multiple causes model X X Y X b. Mutual causation model X Y c. Intervening model (not directly) X Z Y 3. Alternative causal models One-way model here is false a. Reverse causation model X Y b. Third-factor model X Y Z 3) Data collection methods: description, advantages, and disadvantages of content analysis, surveys, and experiments 1. Content analysis Numerical description of media a. Advantages Ident ifies what is in the media message that starts in message b. Disadvantages By itself, cannot demonstrate cause and effect . Surveys Asking representative sample, external validity a. Advantages 1) Representative sample of people 2) Measures naturally occurring events b. Disadvantages 1) Limited to questions 2) Cannot measure time order 3. Experiments Expose people to something: measure effects, internal, validity a. Advantages 1) Can observe/manipulate events 2) Can observe time order b. Disadvantages 1) Often uses limited sample of people 2) Artificial setting and situations C) Uses and Gratifications Theories 1) Uses and Gratifications defined and the uses and gratifications model 1. Defined What happens before and during media exposure helps determine the effects of exposure 2. Model Psychological forces: individual, what you believe Social forces: outside influence, from others or†¦ (Both happen at the same time) Reasons for exposure conditions of exposure: what do you feel media effects Example: Desire to vote correctly Professor urges you to engage in political process 2) Some reasons for media exposure (list of common media gratifications) 1. Surveillance Try to learn something, figure something out 2. Entertainment Look for to prove your mood 3. Interpersonal activity 1) You want to watch famous people, so you watch the TV show (2) You watch TV show, you want to talk to others about it. 4. Para social interaction We keep the relationship (you watch Opera, you believe her because she tells you what to do) 5. Personal Identity You watch TV show to improve yourself and expand your knowledge in the fields you are interested in. The similarity is between you and c haracters. D) Cultivation Theory 1) Constructed nature of social reality 1. The mind begins as a blank slate 2. Our reality is constructed for us by social interactions and institutions 3. Part of the reality we construct is based on television reality 4. Television reality is wrong 2) Television reality: what is wrong with it; the consistency of the patterns Entertainment television presents a distorted view of America and the world. 62% characters are male People under 18 are only 1/3 of actual People over 65 are only 1/5 of actual Crime is 10 times as common as actual Medical and criminal justice workers many times as common as actual 3% of TV characters are responsible for an older adult 3) The Cultivation process: parts of the process 1. Where attitudes come from Belief 1 Belief 2 attitude judgment Belief 3 EX. Beliefs and attitude toward police officers Police use brutality Police protect people Police abuse power 2. The cultivation model Viewer’s exposure to TV demographics 1) Exposure to TV demographics a. Who is on Television b. What they do and what happens to them 2) Viewers’ beliefs about people, places, and other social phenomena a. Who is out there in the world b. What they do and what happens to them 3) Views’ attitudes a. Based on beliefs about people, places, and other social phenomena b. We infer importance status, and relative social place; we make judgments c. Mainstreaming process 4) Further specifications 1. When does Cultivation not occur? a. When direct experience differs from TV b. When people view critically c. When the TV message is not uniform 2. When is cultivation most likely to occur? a. When the message resonate with direct experience b. When 5) Cultivation research: Content analyses and surveys 1. Content analysis of television 2. Survey research a. Exposure to TV b. Beliefs c. Attitudes 6) Criticisms of the theory 1. Difficult to establish causality 2. Too broad E) General Media Effects Theories 1) Social Learning 1. Overview We can learn behavior by watching other’s behavior 2. How it works a. Basic model: Attention to performance of behavior b. Important conditions 1) Identification with model 2) Model rewards/consequences 3) Situational motivations The situation should be the same c. Categorizing the theory 1) Causes change 2) Individual-level 3) Long-term 4) Non-cumulative (only need to see performance once) 5) Behavioral focus 2) Excitation Transfer 1. Overview The excitement we get from media content can exaggerate our feelings 2. How it works 1) Physiological arousal (transfer) Media content can be arousal Expose to arousing content 2) Exaggeration comes from misunderstanding the cause of arousal. 3) Categorizing the theory 1. Causes change 2. Individual level 3. Short-term 4. Non-cumulative 5. Affective focus 3) Exemplification A lot of times we see examples of people in news, we think about the represent issue, use the examples to judge issues. 1. How it works 1) People understand issues in terms of effect on other people 2) News stories supply examples of people and situations (exemplars); often extreme causes. ) People treat exemplars as typical cases 4) Exemplars are often easy to recall when a. No firm impression of actual situation b. Example created emotional reaction 5) Process Exposure to examples in News 6) Net effect: extreme, incorrect beliefs and judgments about social issues 2. Categorizing the theory 1) Causes change 2) Individual-level 3) Long-term 4) Non-cumulative 5) Cognitive focus 4) Dese nsitization a. The more you see bother the content, the less it bother you (content that used to bother you). b. How it works 1) Applies to affect-producing content 2) Basic model Repeated exposure 3) Outcome can be affected or behavior change c. Categorizing the theory 1) Causes change 2) Individual-level 3) Long-term 4) Cumulative 5) Affective focus (first) 5) Catharsis Not very supported, but very interesting media provide opportunity for us to add up emotions. (Media content lets us imagine away negative feelings) 1. How it works 1) We have negative experience 2) Media provide venue for fantasizing 3) Basic model Negative feelings 2. Categorizing the theory 1) Causes change 2) Individual-level 3) Short-term 4) Non-cumulative 5) Affective focus ) Reinforcement Some media content encourage us to stay as we are (media reinforces what we already think, feel and do) 1. How it works 1) Builds from 2 basic observations a. Not everyone reacts to media content b. Many people already behave as suggested by content 2) Basic model Exposure to content 2. Categorizing the theory (does not cause change) 1) Reinforces 2) Individual-level 3) Long-term 4) Non-cumulative 5) Cognitive/affective/behavioral focus F) Media Violence and Aggression 1) Basic models of violence effects 1. Exposure to violence in media Exposure Exposure Exposure 2. Exposure to violence in media 2) The research: content analysis, experiments, and survey studies 1. Content analysis (1) Count of violent acts Six percent of all TV shows have violence and have six hours (2) Perpetrators Good guys commit violence 3) Consequences (terrible) 70% of violent acts down, half of them show no harm or no pain. 4% content 2. Survey studies (1) One-time How much violence can you observe? Generally conducted on Children Ask teacher to measure the aggression in Children Ask children how much TV they watch Lots of TV= lots of aggression (2) Over-time 1961: increased exposure=increased aggression 1971: increased exposure=increased aggression Being exposed to violence= aggressive behavior (causal nature) 3. Experiment Field experiments: outcomes based on previous experience Look at previous behavior, control predict Violent is related to aggressive Trying to find out what people are doing naturally Less control 3) Criticisms of the research Causal model cannot show relationship with certainty Why is there so much violence? Easily produced Easily understood G) Sexually Explicit Content ) Issues in sexually explicit content research: the basic categorization scheme, kinds of dependent variables, ethical concerns 1. The basic categorization scheme (1) Sexually violent a. Sex involves in movies (2) Nonviolent degrading More or less can teach bad things for male and female relationship (3) Nonviolent non-degrading Love, equal power between (4) Nudity It is not real about sex (5) Child por nography 2. Kinds of dependent variables (1) Arousal What people will be like when show something? (2) Beliefs What people think about the sexual content? (3) Attitudes (4) Behavior What’s your sexual activity? Take safe or not? 3. Ethical concerns People do the content worries about 2) Effects of non-violent sexually explicit content: degrading and non-degrading content 3) Effects of sexual violence: what makes sexual violence different than other violence, typical sexual violence content types and exposure effects We only see it in media Typical sexual violence content types: the outcome 4) Criticisms of the research Hard to do this experiment H) Race in Crime News 1) Theoretical approaches to possible effects 2) Race and crime news: how various racial groups are depicted 3) Explaining differences in news coverage I) Mass Media and Gender 1) Theoretical approaches to possible effects 2) Remember audience differences 3) Entertainment media and advertising: content patterns, the role of media producers, research on effects of exposure to body images J) Media Media and Health 1) Theoretical approaches to possible effects 2) Representations of mental disorders 3) Representations of physicians: current and past 4) Entertainment-Education 5) Media Obesity: characteristics of common portrayals (of food and people), nutritional knowledge K) Public Opinion 1) Public opinion defined 2) Spiral of Silence ) Criticisms of Spiral of Silence We need more research, dont work very well in the USA. L) Agenda Setting, Priming, ; Framing 1) The agenda setting effect: the public agenda, the media agenda, how the media communicate the importance of issues, the basic model 2) Agenda setting research: survey research at one time, survey research over time, and experiments 3) Conditions that affect when agenda settin g happens: individual differences and issue obtrusiveness 4) Issue priming: the priming effect and research Use the issue to judge the leaders 5) Framing: the news framing effect Does take in account what it said. M) Mass Media and Presidential Elections 1) Relationship between candidates and journalists 2) Patterson’s Game Schema Theory a) Hypothesis: general thesis and model b) Opposing approaches to elections: how journalists and voters approach elections c) Effects of this disparity d) Why this has occurred e) Strengths and weaknesses (criticisms) of the theory N) Effects of Internet Use 1) Internet use affects quality of interactions 2) Internet use replaces interpersonal communication 3) Internet use replaces traditional mass media People dont have recourses to do multiple things. You dont know when someone watching you. Internet people can get really diversity information III. Discussion section content since examination #1 A) Sex Roles on Television and Stereotype Threat B) Video game and music video findings C) Voter turnout trends and campaigns Important thing to know who tends to vote. Education level, race graphics Why? Old people are home, and others. VEP is better than the VAP Learn about the candidates and decide how you to vote Watch the news and look for issue information about the conditdates Want to decide how to vote I don’t want to become a police officer Viewer’s attitudes Viewer’s beliefs Performance of behavior Learning of behavior Exaggeration of feelings Arousal Examples used in beliefs and judgment about issues Recall of examples Acceptance of depicted behavior Reduced emotional response Perform Reduction of original feelings Various releases of feelings Exposure to others acting out feelings Predisposition reinforcement Aggressiveness Aggressiveness Social learning Aggressiveness Excitation transfer Aggressiveness Desensitization Fear

International Legal English Certificate Test Of Writing English Language Essay

International Legal English Certificate Test Of Writing English Language Essay 1. Introduction This assignment evaluates the Test of Writing of the International Legal English Certificate (ILEC). ILEC is an examination produced by Cambridge ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) in collaboration with Translegal, a firm of lawyer-linguists. The target candidature for ILEC is legal professionals and law students, operating in the area of international commercial law, who need to demonstrate proof of their language proficiency in English. The assignment will first consider relevant issues for the development of tests for specific purposes and then examine validity aspects of the ILEC Writing paper in detail. (1) 1.1 Tests in Language for Specific Purposes Testing Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), such as a Test of English for the legal profession refers to language assessment in which the test content arises from an analysis of specific target language use situations: these often (but not always) correspond to the language needs of a particular occupational group. Devising LSP tests presents test developers with a number of issues, including the relationship of test specificity to test generalisability; the importance of ensuring authenticity of test content; the interaction between background content knowledge and language knowledge, and for some domains, the difficulty in gaining access to relevant information on the nature of language use in that domain. (2) 1.2 Specificity vs Generalisability LSP tests have often been directly contrasted with general purpose tests. This is now, however, generally acknowledged to be an oversimplification of the issue and there is growing consensus that tests do not fall into one grouping (specific purpose) or the other (general purpose), but that, in the words of Douglas (2000:1), there is a continuum of specificity from the very general to the very specific: all tests are devised for some purpose and fall at some point along the specificity spectrum. The concept of a spectrum or continuum of specificity raises the question of where on the continuum a test should be placed and the related issue of how generalisable the LSP test is intended to be. Generalisability is often held to decrease in proportion to the specificity of the test: the more specific a test (such as English for Air Traffic Controllers), the less possible to generalise from that to other language use situations. This is accepted as a fundamental issue in LSP, to which the re are no straightforward answers. (3) 1.3 Background content knowledge In general purpose language testing, background knowledge of topic or cultural content is viewed as a confounding variable, which should be minimised as it has the potential to lead to measurement error. For LSP tests, however, subject specific content is arguably a defining feature of the test. Nonetheless, the question of separability, that is, how to distinguish between language knowledge and specific background knowledge in analysing candidates results on a specific purpose language test, has been a recurring concern. Bachman and Palmer (1996) argued in relation to a test for trainee doctors, that it should be possible to control for background medical knowledge in interpretation of performance on a language test, by, for example, the administration of knowledge tests alongside the LSP test. The difficulty in assessing the extent of the test takers background knowledge and its interaction with language proficiency has been addressed by Clapham (1996) who concluded that background knowledge was undoubtedly a significant factor in the process of testing reading, but the extent varied with the specificity of the test and the language proficiency of the candidate. There has more recently been an acceptance that until more is known about how the mind deals cognitively with ability and knowledge, specific background knowledge and language performance need to be treated as being inextricably linked (Douglas 2000:39). (4) 1.4 Access to information on language use within the domain With an increase, in the second part of the 20th century, in the number of people needing to learn English for education, technology and commerce, the main drive behind the development of LSP was practical rather than theoretical. As a result, LSP itself may be said to have suffered from a lack of theoretical underpinning. A key analytical tool has been the use of Needs Analysis to assess the linguistic requirements of a particular target group. Some analyses resulted in long detailed lists of needs for which empirical verification was held to be lacking. Widdowson, for example, described many LSP Needs Analyses as being made up of observational lists with no basis in theory (Widdowson 1983:8). Alderson, Davies and others have raised similar concerns (Alderson 1988, Davies 1990, Skehan 1984). A further criticism of some needs analyses was that they lacked objectivity, were influenced by the ideological perceptions of the analysts (Robinson 1991:7) and took insufficient account of the students themselves. Nonetheless, assessment of language needs can still inform LSP course and test design. As Clapham has said, We now know that such analyses can become too detailed, and also paradoxically, too limited in scope. However, this does not mean that they areunnecessary (Clapham 1996:5). Analysis of texts and spoken discourse from particular target language use situations is important in revealing how the target language use (TLU) community communicates and disseminates information. The growth of corpus linguistics and the corresponding development of electronic databases of texts can help in enabling the identification of specific syntactic patterns and use of specific lexis among particular occupational groups or discourse communities. At present, however, there is a limited number of such corpora available and genre analysis plays an important role when considering communication between members of the occupational group or discourse community in question. According to Swales (1990), texts belonging to a particular genre share common features with regard to the organisation of information, rhetorical conventions and lexico-grammatical patterns which practitioners within that discourse community need to access and use in order to operate with any degree of effectiveness. Bhatia (1993) developed earlier work by Swales and has extensively researched language use in professional contexts, particularly discourse within business settings. Nonetheless, due to the confidential nature of the work done by some occupational groups (such as lawyers), access to texts from those domains may not be easily acquired. Swales (1996 cited in Flowerdew and Wan 2006) refers to such texts as occluded, genres to which access is normally denied to those outside the participating discourse community. One task for the test developer in such circumstances therefore lies in obtaining subject-specific assistance and advice. Bhatia (1993) reports on how the subject specialis t or specialist informant has played a role within LSP genre analysis. (5) 2. The ILEC Writing Test: considering the validity issues A copy of the ILEC Writing Test is attached in Appendix 1. The test will be evaluated according to its context, theory-based, scoring and consequential validity. (6) 2.1 Context Validity The term Content Validity was traditionally used to refer to the authenticity and content coverage of the task. Context Validity is now a more widely used term as it also takes into account the discoursal, social and cultural contexts as well as the linguistic content. Context validity in the case of writing tasks also relates to the particular performance conditions under which the operations required for task fulfilment are performed such as purpose of task, time available, length, specified addresses. (7) 2.1.1 Authenticity of task and content coverage Authenticity of task means that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the LSP test tasks should share critical features of tasks in the target language use situation of interest to the test takers (Douglas 2000:2). Bachman and Palmer (1996:23) describe a task as being relatively authentic à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ whose characteristics correspond to those of the Target Language Use (TLU) domain tasks and define authenticity as the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a TLU task (1996:23). In terms of the TLU situation, ILEC is a test of English in an international, commercial law context, the design of which is based on the following characteristics of the language environment of the target candidates: Areas of the law: law of associations; contract law; sale of goods; debtor-creditor law; commercial paper; employment law; intellectual property law; property law; remedies; civil procedure; administrative law; public international law; family law. Types of lawyer: lawyers practising (and law students who intend to practise) in a commercial law context with elements of international commercial business dealings. Types of environments that target lawyers work in: business law firms and other law firms with international dealings; in-house corporate counsel; governmental organisations; international organisations. Types of people that target lawyers must communicate with in English: other international lawyers; members of the international business community; governmental representatives; client form other countries. The choice of materials in the Writing Test is based on an analysis of the kinds of tasks that the target lawyers are likely to encounter in their working environment. (8) In a legal context, for example, a legal writing test must engage the test taker in writing tasks which are authentically representative of the situations they might plausibly encounter. The technical characteristics of language employed in a legal professional context has very specific features that lawyers operating in the field of law must control: There are lexical, semantic, syntactic, and even phonological characteristics of language peculiar to any field, and these characteristics allow for people in that field to speak and write more precisely about aspects of the field that outsiders sometimes find impenetrable (Douglas 2000:7). Interestingly, Douglas goes on to provide an example of legalise characterised by à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the arcane lexis, the convoluted syntax, the use of Latin terminology, and the interminable cross-references to previous laws and cases in legal texts (2000:8) as an example of the requirement for precise, specific purpose language. Clearly, such language has consciously evolved, developed by the legal fraternity enabling its members to dynamically engage with each other in an attempt to communicate effectively the exact meaning of the law. (9) A legal test also needs to identify and cover its relevant content domain. Coverage of the appropriate domains of language use is attained through the employment of relevant topics, tasks, text types and contexts. The domains, therefore, need to be specified with reference to the characteristics of the test taker, and to the characteristics of the relevant language use contexts. This is the case with the ILEC Writing paper. (10) 2.1.2 Interactional and Situational Authenticity As a general principle it is now argued that language tests should as far as is practicable place the same requirements on test takers as involved in writers responses to communicative settings in non-test real-life situations. The purpose for writing in this paradigm is essentially about communication rather than accuracy (Hyland 2002:8) emphasising validity, particularly the psychological reality of the task, rather than statistical reliability (ibid:230). These views on writing reflect a concern with authenticity which has been a dominant theme in recent years for adherents of a communicative testing approach as they attempt to develop tests that approximate to the reality of non-test language use (real life performance) (see Hawkey 2004, Morrow 1979, Weir 1993 and Weir 2003).The Real-Life (RL) approach (Bachman 1990:41) has proved useful as a means of guiding practical test development. It is most useful in situations in which the domain of language use is relatively homogeneous and identifiable (see OSullivan 2006 on the development of Cambridge Business English examinations). Its primary limitation, however, is that it cannot provide very much information about language ability and hence cannot demonstrate validity in the broadest sense. The RL approach has been regarded as encapsulating the notion of communicative testing as it seeks to develop tests that mirror the reality of non-test language use (real life performance). Its prime concerns are : the appearance or perception of the test and how this may effect test performance and test use (face validity) and; the accuracy with which test performance predicts non-test performance (predictive validity). A number of various attempts have been made to characterise communicative tests (Morrow 1979, Alderson 1981, Porter 1983). Weir (1988), however, points out, there are inherent problems involved in basing test specifications on empirical research and observes that: the more specific the tasks one identifies the less one can generalise from performance on its realisation in a test. The concern with situational authenticity requires writers to make use of texts, situational contexts, and tasks which simulate real-life without trying to replicate it exactly. The interactional authenticity (IA) approach is concerned with the extent to which test performance reflects language abilities. In other words, the concern is with construct validity. Bachman (1989) summarises the IA approach arguing that it encapsulates the essential characteristics of communicative language use by reflecting the interactive relationship that exists between the language user, the context and the discourse. The major consideration shifts from that of attempting to sample actual instances of non-test language use, to that of determining the most appropriate combination of test method characteristics. For Bachman, an interactionally authentic test involves the following: some language function in addition to that of demonstrating the test takers language knowledge; the test takers language knowledge; the test takers language schemata; the test takers meta-cognitive strategies. (11) 2.1.3 Purpose of task Task setting (such as Purpose, Response Format, Weighting, Known Criteria, Order of Items, Time Constraints) and Linguistic Demands (such as Channel, Discourse Mode, Text length, Writer-reader Relationship, etc.) are normally conveyed through the rubric/instructions supplied to the candidates. It is generally accepted that the presentation of information in the task rubric should be made as explicit as possible in terms of the production demands required of the test taker. (12) The writing task rubric must present candidates with clear, precise and unequivocal information regarding the purpose for completing the writing task and the target audience for it. This purpose should provide a reason for completing the task that goes beyond a ritual display of knowledge for assessment. It may well involve suspension of disbelief but having a clear and acceptable communicative purpose in mind is thought to enhance performance. The way the prompt is worded has been shown to affect what the candidate sees as the purpose of the task (Hamp Lyons 1991 and Moore and Morton 1999). For example a term like discuss is open to different interpretations unless further specified (see Evans 1988). (13) The ILEC Writing test gives a clear role to the candidate in each task (eg You are a lawyer representing Ms Sandra Meyer.) and a clear purpose and target audience for the task (eg Write a letter to Robert Woodly on behalf of your client, Ms Meyer. Write a memorandum to your colleague to brief him on the case.) (14) 2.1.4 Time Constraints In writing we are concerned with the time available for task completion: speed at which processing must take place; length of time available to write; whether it is an exam or hand in assignment, and the number of revisions/drafts allowed (process element). Outside of examination essays, in the real world, writing tasks would not necessarily be timed (although there is a case for speed writing in a working context on occasions especially in a legal or professional setting where deadlines must be met). Where time in the workplace is not of the essence, students would be allowed maximum opportunity and access to resources for demonstrating their writing abilities. However considerations such as time constraints and reliability issues make longer, processà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœoriented tests impractical in most situations. (15) Weir (2004) points out that the texts we get candidates to produce obviously have to be long enough for them to be scored in a valid manner. If we want to establish whether a student can organize a written product into a coherent whole, length is obviously a key factor. He notes that as regards an appropriate time for completion of productà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Ëœoriented writing tasks in an actual examination setting, Jacobs et al. (1981:19), in their research on the Michigan Composition Test, found that a time allowance of thirty minutes probably gave most students enough time to produce an adequate sample of their writing ability for the purpose of assessment. (16) One might reasonably expect that time-restricted test tasks cannot represent what writers are capable of in normal written discourse where time constraints may be less limited. Kroll (1990:140-154) reports on research comparing timed classroom essays and essays written at home over a 10-14 day period. Contrary to what one might have expected the study indicated that, in general, time does not buy very much for students in either their control over syntax the distribution of specific language errors being remarkably similar in both or in their organisational skills. (17) In the case of ILEC, common tasks are presented to a candidature comprising both B2 and C1 candidates who must complete the test in 1 hour and 15 minutes. (18) 2.1.5 Text Length Text length potentially has an important effect in terms of what Weir (2005) calls the executive resources that will be called into play in cognitive processing. These resources are both linguistic and experiential and need to be as similar as possible to those made by equivalent tasks in real life language use for use to generalise from test performance to language use in the domain of interest. ILEC Writing comprises two tasks, one of between 120 and 180 words and one of between 200 and 250 words. (19) 2.2 Theory-based validity Theory-based validity involves collecting evidence through the piloting and trialling of a test before it is made available to candidates on the cognitive processing activated by the test tasks. (20) Theory-based validity of a test of writing is a function of how closely it represents the cognitive processing involved in performing the construct in real life. Weir (2005) details how establishing theory-based validity for a writing task involves producing evidence on the nature of the executive resources and executive processing activated by the task. Executive resources involve linguistic resources and content knowledge. Content knowledge may already be possessed by the candidate or might be available in information supplied through task input. The Executive process refers to cognitive processing and includes the procedures of goal setting, topic genre modifying, generating, organizing, translating and reviewing. (21) Planning relates to a number of stages in the writing process: macro-planning; organisation; micro planning (Field 2004). Macro-planning entails assembling a set of ideas and drawing upon world knowledge. The writer initially establishes what the goal of the piece of writing is to be. This includes consideration of the target readership, of the genre of the text (earlier experience as a reader may assist) and of style (level of formality). Grabe and Kaplan (1996) refer to this stage as Goal Setting. Goal setting involves setting goals and purposes, offering an initial draft of task representation and connecting context with verbal working memory (1996: 226). During the Organisation stage the writer provisionally organises the ideas, still in abstract form, a) in relation to the text as a whole and b) in relation to each other. The ideas are evaluated in terms of their relative importance, and decisions made as to their relative prominence in the text. The outcome may be a set of roug h notes. Grabe and Kaplan (1996:226) describe Organizing as grouping, categorizing ideas, establishing new concepts and putting ideas in suitable order. At the micro-planning level, the writer shifts to a different level and begins to plan conceptually at sentence and paragraph level. Throughout this stage, constant reference back to two sets of criteria is made: to decisions taken at earlier stages and to the manner in which the text has progressed so far. Account is taken of the overall goals of the text; of the organisational plan and the direction in which the text is currently tending; and of the content of the immediately preceding sentence or paragraph. At this stage, the writer needs to give consideration to whether an individual piece of information is or is not shared with the reader a) by virtue of shared world knowledge or b) as a result of earlier mention in the text. These processing procedures are described in detail by Hayes and Flower (1980), Bereiter Scardamalia ( 1987), and Grabe Kaplan (1996). (22) ILEC Writing tasks require candidates to undertake writing tasks which engage these processing abilities. The Needs Analysis revealed that correspondence between legal firms and and clients is a written form of communication frequently needed by professionals. Furthermore, correspondence is often in the form of a response to an earlier letter and includes reference both to this text and to other documents or texts, such as tax statements, procedural documents, company accounts. This reflects the concept of intertextuality as identified by Kristeva (1980:69); research by others (Flowerdew and Wan 2006) has confirmed the prevalence of the interaction between texts in the corporate world. To reflect the findings of the ILEC Needs Analysis 9see Appendix 2), one task on the Test of Writing requires candidates to draw on a previous text and compose a response to it with the use of notes. Composing the response requires the candidate to use a range of functions including clarifying, refutin g, requesting information, referring the target reader to other documentation. (23) 2.3 Scoring Validity Scoring Validity is linked directly to both context and theory-based validity and accounts for the extent to which test scores are based on appropriate criteria, exhibit consensual greement in their marking, are as free as possible from measurement error, stable over time, consistent in terms of their content sampling and engender confidence as reliable decision making indicators. (24) The assessment criteria for ILEC Writing (see Appendix 3 ) are based on those of a General English test at the same levels related to the CEFR. As Douglas points out: contrary to the cases of LSP test content and method, LSP assessment criteria have not usually been derived from an analysis of the TLU situation (Douglas 2001:174). In the same article, he goes on to make a case for basing LSP assessment criteria on an empirical analysis of the TLU situation. It is also the case with ILEC, that examiners for both the ILEC Writing and Speaking papers, are not required to have a background in Legal English*. It may be argued that this is a weakness in the underpinning scoring validity of the ILEC Writing paper as assessment by a subject specialist may differ from that of the layperson (ie general marker). (25) Jacobs et al. (1981:3) identify aspects of this relating to cognitive process and social interaction: The direct testing of writing emphasizes the communicative purpose of writing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (it) utilizes the important intuitive, albeit subjective, resources of other participants in the communicative process the readers of written discourse, who must be the ultimate judges of the success or failure of the writers communicative efforts. If candidates self-assessments of their language abilities, or ratings of the candidate by teachers, subject specialists, or other informants (Alderson et al 1995) differs from that of the non-specialist Examiner, predictive validity may be compromised. (26) 2.4 Consequential Validity Messick (1989:18) argues that For a fully unified view of validity, it must à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ be recognised that the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of score- based inferences depend * personal information from ILEC Writing subject staff as well on the social consequences of the testing. Therefore social values and social consequences cannot be ignored in considerations of validity. Consequential Validity relates to the way in which the implementation of a test can affect the interpretability of test scores; the practical consequences of the introduction of a test (McNamara 2000). Shohamy (1993:37) argues that Testers must begin to examine the consequences of the tests they develop à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ often à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ they do not find it necessary to observe the actual use of the test. Weir (2005) provides a comprehensive treatment of these key elements within the Socio-Cognitive Validation framework. (27) ILEC has achieved recognition by a number of different legal entities, including universities and law practices in 36 countries (see Appendix 4). Furthermore, the initial market research and viability study was administered to a number of stakeholders in the field including international and local law firms, large companies with their own legal departments; university law faculties and legal training providers and language schools. Although the exam fee may be considered to be costly which is arguably an implication of the social consequences of testing, it may be argued that within the domain of corporate/commercial law, the consequential validity in this respect is not unsound. (28) 3. Conclusion This assignment has examined the ILEC Test of Writing. The development of ILEC saw collaboration between assessment specialist and legal content specialists, with each bringing expertise to the process. This has arguably resulted in a test which authentically simulates the TLU situation and as a result, it may be concluded that the test is sound in terms of Context, Theory-based and Consequential validity. Where the test is arguably less strong is in the area of Scoring Validity (and the resulting impact the issue may be said to have on Consequential Validity), in the use of assessment criteria and examining personnel unrelated to the TLU and specific LSP domain. (29) Word Count: 4, 125

Exemplification Essay: Euthanasia Should Be Legalized -- Exemplificatio

Jack has just been in a serious car accident. He is suffering from brain damage and paralysis. His family does not want him to live the rest of his life this way, but do they have a choice in ending the pain and suffering of their loved one? According to most state governments and countries, the answer is no; however, there is method allowed in some states to stop the pain and suffering for both the patient and his family. This method is called euthanasia. Euthanasia is the deliberate, painless killing of persons who suffer from a physically or emotionally painful or incurable disease or condition. Euthanasia is illegal in most countries and few doctors practice it, but it is a decision that seriously ill or injured people and their families should be allowed to make. Jack is unable to do anything. He cannot walk, talk, or even kiss his wife and kids goodnight. Imagine the pain that Jack and his family are going through. His family would much rather see him be put to rest than to watch him suffer the rest of his life. Would you be able to live your life this way? Many people would not be able to, and that is why euthanasia is an important choice to have. It would prevent the family from a lifetime of suffering because the family would not have to see the ill person suffer and they would know that they did the right thing by ending the misery. The major advantage of euthanasia is that it prevents a person from having to endure the rest of their life in pain. There is no appropriate reason that a person who is suffering from an incurable disease or condition should have to spend the rest of his or her life that way. If their family agrees with them, then the patient’s suffering should be put to an end. Many peop... ...d on a patient who wants the help. Would you want to live the rest of your life the way Jack has to, and would your family want you to? The only way in which this can be prevented is euthanasia. If you would not want to spend the rest of your life suffering, how can we expect anyone else to? Works Cited â€Å"Let Death Be My Dominion.† The Economist. Oct 16, 1999. 353 (1999): 89-92. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. Daniel, Caroline. â€Å"Killing with kindness.† New Statesman. 126 (1997): 16(3). Infotrac. Online. 19 Nov. 1999 Emanuel, Ezekiel J. â€Å"Death’s Door.† The New Republic. 220 (1999): 15-16. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. Gillon, Raanan. â€Å"When Doctors Might Kill Their Patients.† British Medical Journal. 318 (1999): 1431-1432. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. â€Å"Suicide.† Clinical Reference Systems. Jul (1999): 1421. Infotrac. Online. 2 Dec. 1999. Exemplification Essay: Euthanasia Should Be Legalized -- Exemplificatio Jack has just been in a serious car accident. He is suffering from brain damage and paralysis. His family does not want him to live the rest of his life this way, but do they have a choice in ending the pain and suffering of their loved one? According to most state governments and countries, the answer is no; however, there is method allowed in some states to stop the pain and suffering for both the patient and his family. This method is called euthanasia. Euthanasia is the deliberate, painless killing of persons who suffer from a physically or emotionally painful or incurable disease or condition. Euthanasia is illegal in most countries and few doctors practice it, but it is a decision that seriously ill or injured people and their families should be allowed to make. Jack is unable to do anything. He cannot walk, talk, or even kiss his wife and kids goodnight. Imagine the pain that Jack and his family are going through. His family would much rather see him be put to rest than to watch him suffer the rest of his life. Would you be able to live your life this way? Many people would not be able to, and that is why euthanasia is an important choice to have. It would prevent the family from a lifetime of suffering because the family would not have to see the ill person suffer and they would know that they did the right thing by ending the misery. The major advantage of euthanasia is that it prevents a person from having to endure the rest of their life in pain. There is no appropriate reason that a person who is suffering from an incurable disease or condition should have to spend the rest of his or her life that way. If their family agrees with them, then the patient’s suffering should be put to an end. Many peop... ...d on a patient who wants the help. Would you want to live the rest of your life the way Jack has to, and would your family want you to? The only way in which this can be prevented is euthanasia. If you would not want to spend the rest of your life suffering, how can we expect anyone else to? Works Cited â€Å"Let Death Be My Dominion.† The Economist. Oct 16, 1999. 353 (1999): 89-92. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. Daniel, Caroline. â€Å"Killing with kindness.† New Statesman. 126 (1997): 16(3). Infotrac. Online. 19 Nov. 1999 Emanuel, Ezekiel J. â€Å"Death’s Door.† The New Republic. 220 (1999): 15-16. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. Gillon, Raanan. â€Å"When Doctors Might Kill Their Patients.† British Medical Journal. 318 (1999): 1431-1432. Proquest. Online. 19 Nov. 1999. â€Å"Suicide.† Clinical Reference Systems. Jul (1999): 1421. Infotrac. Online. 2 Dec. 1999.

Internet Taxation :: Government Political Essays

Internet Taxation â€Å"Should We Tax the Internet?† was written in response to the recent findings of the Advisory Commission on Electronic Commerce in the May 2000 issue of The American Spectator. The argument is between the liberals and conservatives on the issue of whether or not to tax Internet purchases. The liberals believe that Internet purchases should be taxed so that state and local tax bases are not eroded because of increasing Internet purchases. On the other end the conservatives believe that Internet purchases should be kept tax-free, since tracking sales are completed and several states are involved with each purchase. George Gilder the author of â€Å"Should We Tax the Internet?† is extremely conservative in his views and is against all taxes. The article aims to convince its readers that Internet taxation is unlawful and should not implemented because of past tax increases results. To make Gilder’s arguments he uses logos arguments based on facts and reasons. Gilder implements his arguments into his article by relating the arguments to different peoples views and things. Gilder’s main argument is that â€Å"lower tax rates generate more revenue than higher ones† (Gilder 3). Through Gilder’s use of logos arguments, ethos arguments, and unique perspectives he makes an effective argument in favor of not implementing Internet taxes. Gilder starts off by attacking Republicans, which are traditional conservative, by saying that they suffer from the â€Å"tax-raising itch† (Gilder 1). He then moves on to say that two billionaires that he recently talked to are more afraid of a â€Å"reckless tax cut† than war or terrorism. Gilder is starting his argument off by using ethos argument by giving perspectives from high profile Silicon Valley cent millionaires. Gilder then goes onto to explain to his audience how taxes above a certain percent do not collect revenue. He does this by saying â€Å"that there has only been one advance since John Marshall opined that the power to tax is the power to destroy† (Gilder 3). John Marshall made this advance by showing that lower tax rates generate more revenues than higher ones. This is a logos argument, but is a fallacy because higher taxes would lead to higher revenues rather than lower taxes. Gilder then tries to make the argument that no tax rate above 20 percent collects revenue.